Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and critical incidents in a Scottish prison population
Introduction
Several studies have reported an association between antisocial behaviour and adults with attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) (Babinski et al., 1999, Brassett-Grundy and Butler, 2004, Satterfield et al., 1994). Despite this, there have been only a few published studies investigating the prevalence of ADHD in adult prison populations and none have specifically explored the association of ADHD symptoms with behaviour in this restricted environment (Dalteg et al., 1999, Eyestone and Howell, 1994, Gudjonsson et al., 2008, Rasmussen et al., 2001, Vitelli, 1995). These five studies suggest that approximately 50% of inmates had childhood ADHD and of those about half met full or partial remission criteria for ADHD in adulthood.
Fazel and Danesh (2002) found that when compared with the general population in America and the United Kingdom, prisoners had about a ten fold excess of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). They found a prevalence rate of 65% for ASPD, which is similar to the 50–75% reported in studies carried out within the United States penal system (Singleton, Meltzer, Gatward, Coid, & Deasy, 1997). In addition to conduct problems in childhood and antisocial personality disorder in adulthood, substance misuse is strongly associated with adult ADHD, but this may only occur when there is co-morbid antisocial behaviour (Lynskey & Hall, 2001).
Children with ADHD are at risk of the development of psychiatric problems, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality disorder (Brassett-Grundy and Butler, 2004, Young et al., 2003). In a meta-analysis of 20 studies, a strong relationship was found between ADHD measures and criminal/delinquent behaviour (Pratt, Cullen, Blevins, & Unnever, 2002). Lynam (1996) argues that children with ADHD, and who have conduct problems, are at a high risk of becoming psychopathic in adulthood and chronic offenders. The antisocial behaviour of people with ADHD seems to be mediated by poor behavioural control (Barkley, 1998), which suggests that they would be likely to display more critical incidents within a prison environment. Indeed, their behavioural problems may become exacerbated once they are incarcerated in prison where deficits of behavioural control and cognitive function related to ADHD may result in an increased level of inconsistent and unacceptable behaviour (i.e. critical incidents, including verbal and physical aggression).
The principal aim of this study was to investigate whether partial, as well as full symptoms, are associated with behavioural problems in the prison after controlling for the effects of ASPD.
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Participants
A total of 198 male offenders incarcerated in Aberdeen prison responded to adverts placed in the prison and consented to take part in the study (mean age = 30.0, SD = 8.2). The ethnic background of the participants was known in 194 cases, of which 184 (95%) were white Europeans. The index offences were theft/burglary/deception (n = 63, 32%), assault/murder/armed robbery (n = 50, 25%), traffic violations (n = 47, 24%), drugs (n = 23, 12%), arson (n = 3, 1%), sex (n = 2, 1%) and others (n = 10, 5%). On arrival at
Childhood symptoms of ADHD
The first question to be determined was an estimate of how many participants had childhood ADHD based on their self-report. Of the 198 participants, 48 (24%) of the sample had childhood symptoms that fulfilled symptom criteria for ADHD using the DSM-IV DCS data. Out of those 48, 27 (56%) were of the predominantly inattentive type, 8 (17%) were of the predominantly impulsive/hyperactive type and 13 (27%) were of the combined type. One hundred and fifty participants did not meet ADHD childhood
Discussion
In summary, we found that 24% of the participants met the DSM-IV screening criteria for childhood ADHD, of whom 23% were found to fulfil full criteria for ADHD as adults, 33% were in partial remission and 44% were in full remission. The rates of persistence are similar to those reported in the meta-analysis of follow-up studies that applied DSM criteria (Faraone, Biederman, & Mick, 2006), but lower than some previous reports using a slightly different methodology. For example Rasmussen, Almvik,
Acknowledgments
This study was partly funded by Janssen-Cilag Ltd., Saunderton, Bucks HP14 4HJ, United Kingdom. We are grateful to the support of the Scottish Prison Service and students of the Robert Gordon and Aberdeen Universities for data collection. The authors are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on a previous version of this study.
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