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OtherREGULAR ARTICLE

Do Protection Orders Protect?

Christopher T. Benitez, Dale E. McNiel and Renée L. Binder
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online September 2010, 38 (3) 376-385;
Christopher T. Benitez
MD
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Dale E. McNiel
PhD
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Renée L. Binder
MD
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    Table 1

    Summary of Studies Related to Violation of Protection Orders

    ReferencesSample Size; SettingStudy DesignStudy LimitationsStudy FindingsVariables Related to Violation of Protection Orders
    Holt et al.5N = 2691; IPV
    • Retrospective study

    • IPV reports in Seattle over 16-month period

    • PO group vs. no-PO control

    • Police record review

    • 1 year follow-up from date of IPV report

    • Record review only

    • Study does not include any information on violations that were not reported to police

    • No information on which subjects may have been lost to follow-up

    • Intervention and control groups may have had different reporting rates for violation

    • Lack of complete information on demographics

    Permanent PO associated with 80% reduction in police-reported violence during follow-up periodTime: may be increased risk for violation in period immediately after PO placement
    Horton et al.112 studies (1) N = 68 (2) N = 144; IPV
    • Two studies (1 and 2)

    • Prospective from date of temporary PO filing

    • Noncontrolled

    • Review of petition (1), observation of court proceedings (1), victim interview (1), victim questionnaire (2)

    • Data collected within 1 year of enrollment (1) and questionnaire completed over 26-month period (2)

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • Two samples with different measures

    • Sample 2 had only 24% response rate, with no information on how nonresponders may have differed from participants

    • Significant reduction in police contact after temporary PO: 66% (1) and 50% (2) had no further police contact

    • 38% had no further contact with defendant, 24% had infrequent contact, 22% saw defendant frequently, and 16% were living with defendant (1)

    • 19% allowed defendant to return home (2)

    N/A
    Chaudhuri and Daly12N = 30; IPV
    • Prospective from date of temporary PO filing

    • Noncontrolled

    • Interviews at 1 week and 2 months after filing; review of court affidavits were also reviewed

    • 2-month study duration

    • No comparison group that did not have POs filed

    • Small sample size

    • Descriptive study; no statistical analyses reported

    • Short follow-up period

    37% of POs violatedViolator factors: more likely to have a criminal history, less than full time employment, substance abuse, violence history
    Kaci13N = 224; IPV
    • Retrospective pre/post evaluation

    • Court record review

    • 6 months before and 18 months after temporary PO application

    • Record review only

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • Study focused on placement of PO and not on violation

    • Not able to account for whether subjects were in jurisdiction for duration of study period

    7.14% of POs violatedN/A
    Tjaden and Thoennes14N = 15,776; Stalking
    • Retrospective study of random sample of U.S. households

    • Telephone interview

    • Single interview

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • Sample includes only those with access to phones

    • Recall bias: questions related to lifetime exposure to violence

    • No data from court records on POs to assist with validation of victim responses

    • 68.7% violation of POs for female victims

    • 81.3% violation of POs for male victims

    Victim factors: male victim more likely to have order violated by defendant
    Meloy et al.15N = 200; PO defendants (78% IPV)
    • Retrospective pre/post design

    • Record review of criminal proceedings in temporary restraining order cases

    • Random sample of defendants with POs lasting >3 years

    • Records examined 3 years before and 3 years after PO

    • Record review only, so no identification of characteristics that may contribute to long duration POs

    • Sample only included those with long-duration POs in place

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • Only 36 of 200 subjects committed victim related crimes

    • Analysis based on small subset of cases

    18% of POs violated
    • Violator factors: male, prior arrests, substance-abuse history, and contact with mental health system increased risk of violation; race not predictive of violent behavior after PO placement

    • Legal system factors: nonmutual protection orders more likely to be violated

    Harrell and Smith16N = 497;355 female victims,142 male defendants;IPV
    • Prospective

    • Interviews; review of court documents and police records

    • Convenience sample of female complainants and male defendants

    • Interview at 3 months after PO; women interviewed one year later

    • Complex subject group—no clear relationship between defendants and victims

    • No information on whether PO still in place at time of victim-reported contact

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • No information on the large percentage of identified women who refused to participate in study (43%); no info given on rate of refusal for male defendants

    • 77% of women and 71% of men reported some contact at 3 months after a temporary PO and >50% unwanted contact in that time frame

    • 75% of women with a permanent PO reported some contact within the first year of the order

    • Time: temporary PO more likely to be associated with psychological abuse than permanent PO; risk higher shortly after PO initiation

    • Relationship Factors: severity of violence predicted severity of subsequent violence; suggested that biological children more common in violation; cohabitation decreased the likelihood of abuse

    • Violator factors: high resistance at the hearing increased violation

    • Legal system factors: women reporting need for more protection more likely to report severe violence; women's positive rating of police predicted lower probability of severe violence; arrest at the time of incident that led to PO led to decreased risk of severe violence

    Klein17N = 663; IPV
    • Record review of court documents

    • All cases where a PO was obtained during a single calendar year

    • Defendant tracking for 2 years after PO placement

    • Record review only

    • Unclear whether PO in place at time of re-abuse or arrest for re-abuse

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • 48.8% re-abused victims within 2 years

    • 34% arrested for re-abuse

    • Violator factors: younger age, criminal history, substance abuse associated with re-abuse

    • Legal system factors: court-ordered no-contact provisions more likely to result in re-abuse than contact permitted

    Carlson et al.18N = 210; IPV
    • Retrospective observational study

    • Convenience sample of cases in which POs filed against intimate male partners

    • Court and police reports

    • Data from 2 years before and 2 years after PO filing

    • Record review only

    • Sample only included those with police contact over the 2 years before filing of PO

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    23% of POs violated
    • Victim factors: very low SES, black race associated with higher risk of re-victimization; presence of biological children with defendant increased violation risk

    • Legal system factors: arrest of the violator before the initiation of the PO increased risk of future violation for subset of victims with low SES

    • Order type: permanent PO associated with decrease in violence among subset of victims with low SES

    • Relationship factors: 5 or more years in a relationship decreased violence, but not for the lowest SES group

    Grau et al.19N = 270; IPV
    • Retrospective observational study

    • Live interviews were conducted with battered women in four states

    • Single interview approximately 4 months after contact with IPV program

    • Selection bias: sample taken from only those involved in IPV project

    • Recall bias: varied time of interviews after contact with IPV program

    • No validation of interview with court documents

    • Short follow-up period

    56% of POs violatedRelationship factors: women with less severe prior injury were re-abused 44% of the time compared with 67% with more severe prior injuries, and 59% of women not receiving PO's were re-abused
    McFarlane et al.20N = 150; IPV
    • Prospective observational study

    • Women who had obtained a PO

    • Telephone interviews

    • 3, 6, 12, and 18 months after PO obtained

    • No validation of subject responses with court documents

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • Recall bias

    • Strict criteria for obtaining POs in jurisdiction of this study

    • Rates of PO violation: 44% overall, 21% at 3 months

    • 20% at 6 months, 25% at 12 months, 23% at 18 months

    • 5% reported a violation at each time period

    Time: for 18 months after applying for PO, victims experienced significant decreases in levels of violence
    Holt et al.21N = 448; IPV
    • Prospective cohort study

    • Random sample of women who had police contact for IPV (and no PO) and women who obtained a temporary/permanent PO

    • Live and telephone interviews

    • 9-month follow-up period from time of original IPV incident

    • Recall bias

    • No validation of interviewer responses with court documents

    • Moderate duration of follow-up period

    • Differential loss to follow-up between study groups

    • 79.6% of POs violated within the first 5 months

    • 60.1% of POs violated between 5 and 9 months

    Time: longer PO duration predicted lower rates of violent abuse but not unwanted phone calls.
    Isaac et al.22N = 18,369; PO defendants
    • Descriptive study

    • Review of PO database in Massachusetts

    • 0–6 months of follow-up

    • Database review only

    • Variable follow-up period

    • No data on those who left jurisdiction

    • 10% of POs violated at 3 months

    • 15.4% of POs violated as a cumulative probability by 6 months

    Time: overall probability of violation highest in first 3 months
    Logan et al.23N = 757; IPV with and without stalking
    • Retrospective cohort

    • Women who had obtained POs

    • Interview survey

    • One time interviews conducted over 5-week period

    • Recall bias

    • No comparison group that did not have POs in place

    • No validation of responses using court documents

    • No follow-up

    • Remote stalking cases excluded from study group

    • 17.4% of POs violated for women who reported that they had not been stalked

    • 35.9% of POs violated for women who reported that they had been stalked

    Relationship factors: stalking associated with more severe violence
    Mears et al.24N = 336; IPV
    • Retrospective, controlled, observational study

    • PO case filings and arrests (without PO filings) for IPV

    • Police and court records

    • 10 years before and 2 years following PO

    • Record review only

    • Comparison group (those without POs) consisted of sampling of 25 cases/month rather than all cases

    • No information on whether subjects were in jurisdiction for duration of study period

    N/AVictim factors: women from low SES households at higher risk for re-victimization; increased incidence of re-abuse if victim had substance abuse history; black race associated with increased risk for re-abuse; age and prior abuse not linked to re-victimization rates
    • IPV, intimate partner violence; PO protection order; SES socioeconomic status.

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    Table 2

    Characteristics Associated With Increased Risk of Violation of Protection Orders

    CharacteristicStudies Reporting That the Characteristic Was Associated With Increased Risk of Violation, Listed According to the Focus/Context of the StudyStudies of the Characteristic That Did Not Find It to Be Associated With Risk of Violation
    Intimate Partner ViolenceStalkingDefendant
    Time
        Less time since protection order implementation5, 15, 16, 17, 21, 2220
    Victim characteristics
        Male14
        Low socioeconomic status18, 24
        Biological children with defendant16, 181617
        African-American18, 24
        Substance abuse history24
    Perpetrator characteristics
        Violence history/criminal history12, 16, 1715, 16
        Younger age17
        Male15
        Substance abuse history121517
        Less than full-time employment12
        Mental health system contact1517
    Relationship factors
        Living separately161617
        Type of abuse (stalking vs. other)2314, 23
        Shorter relationship duration18
    Legal system factors
        No arrest at the time of protection order placement1816, 17
        Perceived adequacy of the protection order1616
        Nonmutual protection order (vs. mutual)18
        No-contact protection orders (vs. contact)17
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Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online: 38 (3)
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online
Vol. 38, Issue 3
September 2010
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Do Protection Orders Protect?
Christopher T. Benitez, Dale E. McNiel, Renée L. Binder
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online Sep 2010, 38 (3) 376-385;

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Christopher T. Benitez, Dale E. McNiel, Renée L. Binder
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